OPINION: Reconstruction Failed in the United States. What If It Had Succeeded?

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Freedom Center Voices

OPINION: Reconstruction Failed in the United States. What If It Had Succeeded?

As a white public historian who has spent years trying to understand what makes people hate, there is one thing I always go back to: what if Reconstruction succeeded in the United States?

In light of the events that have unfolded over this past weekend, I find myself wondering now more than ever, what would have happened if Reconstruction didn’t fail? Or, I should say, if the United States did not fail African Americans? If Reconstruction succeeded, if African Americans were granted rights deserved to them as human beings, if the United States would have held up their end of the bargain—would we still experience racial violence at the alarming numbers we do today? Would, in the midst of a global pandemic, we still turn on the TV and see yet another unarmed African American killed at the hands of the police?

Many Americans are taught in grade school that the Union Army won the Civil War and President Abraham Lincoln ended slavery. For most of us, that is where the story ended. We learned little to nothing about the Reconstruction Amendments, the Freedman’s Bureau, and the racial violence that plagued the country for nearly 100 years following the Civil War.

For many of us, the reason the story ends there is because America is still uncomfortable with its past, and that includes discussing Reconstruction. We’re uncomfortable admitting that although we passed the 13th Amendment which abolished slavery, it still allowed for forced incarcerated labor that still exists in the country today. We’re uncomfortable admitting that although we passed the 14th amendment granting citizenship to formerly enslaved African Americans, incidents like the Wilmington, NC massacre of 1898 occurred as a reassertion of white power in the South. We’re uncomfortable admitting that although we passed the 15th amendment granting African American men the right to vote, no state in the South allowed this to occur in practice until the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, nearly 95 years later.

There are many reasons why Reconstruction (1865-1877) was arguably unsuccessful in the United States. For example, President Andrew Johnson believed in states’ rights and allowed many southern states to govern themselves after the Civil War—essentially putting the slave-owning Democratic Party back in control.

Print titled "Andrew Johnson's reconstruction and how it works." In reference to Shakespeare’s 'Othello,' an African American Civil War veteran represents Othello, while Andrew Johnson is portrayed as the deceitful Iago who betrays him. Source: Library of Congress.

Print titled "Andrew Johnson's reconstruction and how it works." In reference to Shakespeare’s 'Othello,' an African American Civil War veteran represents Othello, while Andrew Johnson is portrayed as the deceitful Iago who betrays him. Source: Library of Congress.

There was also the failure of “Radical Reconstruction,” (1867-1872) a strategy developed by the Republican Party of the North aimed to fully integrate African Americans into political life throughout the South. At the time, the strategy was referred to as being “radical” (as was the Republican Party who created it) due to its underlying principle belief that African Americans deserved equal rights in the United States. During Radical Reconstruction, Southern states were required to ratify the 14th and 15th Amendments before they could rejoin the Union. By 1870, all former Confederate States had returned to the Union while enacting some of the most progressive policies the region had seen in its history. This included allowing the participation of African Americans in democracy such as elections to state governments and the U.S. Congress. However, by 1867 many southern states began to push back and responded by forming white supremacy organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan to enact racial terror and intimidation. As the 1870s continued, support for reconstruction throughout the country began to wane. The combination of white intimidation, a significant economic depression in the South, and the Democratic Party winning control of the House of Representatives in 1874, resulted in Reconstruction beginning to fade away. It officially ended with the Compromise of 1876 and the removal of federal troops throughout the South.

It is my argument that Reconstruction failed in the United States and that more importantly, the United States failed African Americans. I believe this failure led to a legacy of oppression and racial violence still felt in the streets of America today, causing me to ask myself yet again: if Reconstruction, and more specifically Radical Reconstruction, would have succeeded—would America be different? If those who incited rebellion against the United States would have been punished accordingly; if reparations were recognized and honored—allowing opportunities such as land for formerly enslaved African Americans and the right to an equal education; if monuments glorifying war criminals and white supremacy were not allowed to be placed on pedestals throughout the South; if symbols of hate were destroyed and forbid for being displayed ever again in the United States—would we in 2020 still see examples of the very same institutionalized racism present in the Black Codes of Reconstruction?

History is complicated and uncomfortable, but it is important. I don’t have the answers on to how to reverse years of revisionist history, generational trauma, and white supremacy. However, I can offer some suggestions on how to move forward. Take some time to learn about our history—us as Americans—in a way you may not have before. Unfamiliar with Reconstruction, Jim Crow, or the Civil Rights era? Add some books to your summer reading list to help supplement knowledge (this article, titled “Understanding and Dismantling Racism: A Booklist for White Readers” is a great place to start). Have children that you want to introduce these topics to? Explore our Online Learning Resources, targeted for various grade levels. But above all—push yourself to learn if you are unfamiliar, and then urge others in your circle to do the same.

And lastly, when we reopen—we encourage you to visit our museum. We’ll be here to help you navigate this uncomfortable history in order to gain tools to help fight for an inclusive future.

Katie Bramell

Director of Museum Experiences
National Underground Railroad Freedom Center

Heroes of the American Red Cross

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Freedom Center Voices

Heroes of the American Red Cross

In honor of the 139th anniversary of the founding of the Red Cross, I would like to focus this week’s post on the contributions of women to the medical field. Throughout history, women serve as the moral backbone of many social movements in the United States, from both the abolitionist and suffrage movements of the 19th century to the Black Lives Matter and Me Too platforms of today.

The medical field is no exception. The history of the American Red Cross is an inspirational example of women’s contributions to humanity. Their courage, cooperation and perseverance propelled the Red Cross to become one of the most impactful humanitarian organizations in the world.

Clara Barton (1821-1912) founded the American Red Cross in 1881 and was president of the organization until 1904. During the Civil War, like many women she had a deep desire to help the wounded and dying soldiers who were fighting on the battlefields. As a nurse for the Union Army, she risked her life daily to help thousands of men suffering through the trauma of war. This included bringing supplies and support to the Massachusetts 54th Regiment, the all-African American regiment recruited by Frederick Douglass. Her compassion and dedication during this turbulent time earned her the nickname “Angel of the Battlefield.”

Clara Barton (1821-1912)

Clara Barton (1821-1912)

Following the Civil War, Barton wanted to continue to help the wounded and dying around the world on a “neutral basis.” To accomplish her goal, she sought advice from friends. After working closely together during the Civil War, Frederick Douglass and Barton formed a close friendship that aided Barton in creating the American Red Cross. Douglass offered Barton helpful advice on how to become a member of the global Red Cross network. While serving as Register of Deeds for the District of Columbia, he signed the original Articles of Incorporation for the American Red Cross—the documents that would legally and officially create the American Red Cross.

Women of color played a major role in the success of the organization as well. Frances Reed Elliott Davis (1883-1965) was the first African American registered nurse in the American Red Cross. Her journey began at the Freedman’s School of Nursing in Washington D.C., where she became the first African American in D.C. to pass the board exam. She helped the family members of WWI soldiers in Chattanooga, TN, and became the director of nurses training at Tuskegee Institute’s John A. Andrew Memorial Hospital.

Frances Reed Elliott Davis (1883-1965)

Frances Reed Elliott Davis (1883-1965)

Ruth Hills Wadsworth (1886-1973) was the first Native American nurse to help allied soldiers in France during WWI. She began her nursing career in El Paso in 1908 at the Hotel Dieu School of Nursing. Following a stint as a private nurse, she decided to join the American Red Cross to help those in war torn Europe. Besides helping the soldiers and doctors in the medical camps, she also spent a considerable amount of time helping women and children traumatized by war. After the war, she moved onto the Mescalero Apache reservation where she dedicated her time to helping the Apache people.

Since its inception, women in the American Red Cross have helped millions of people throughout the world. Today, they serve in every area of the organization. Like the female abolitionists and conductors that came before them, these women continue to display the courage, cooperation and perseverance it takes to make the world a better place for all of us.

James Harrington

Manager of Interpretive Services
National Underground Railroad Freedom Center

Memories at the National Underground Railroad Freedom Center

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Freedom Center Voices

Memories at the National Underground Railroad Freedom Center

For today’s #MuseumWeek2020 hashtag #MuseumMomentsMW, I thought I’d share some of my favorite museum memories. The National Underground Railroad Freedom Center opened in August 2004. I came in October that year to volunteer for ONE weekend and am still here 15 years later!

As part of our Education team, I’ve spent many years interacting with groups of our children through school tours, outreach visits to classrooms and as a costumed interpreter. I enjoy thinking back on the impact we’ve made by teaching them about American history. The most rewarding part is to watch their faces light up at the stories we share, especially when they recognize names of people, places or things in the story. I love to hear them ask questions, chime in, and share what they have learned during our time together. I’m always moved by their profound statements like “Where did America go wrong?” or “Why did they treat people like that?” or “When I grow up, I want to…” They are a bright spot in what we do.

There are so many stories that I could share from my time with the museum. From the incredible staff trips we took to historical sites around the country (Charleston, SC; Richmond, VA; Memphis, TN; Atlanta, GA and Selma, AL just to name a few) to seeing or meeting the many famous celebrity guests who have visited over the years... First Lady Michelle Obama, Andrew Young, and Susan Taylor have all walked our halls. One of my favorite performers, Lionel Richie, came once and I was starstruck. We also had the chance to host Ms. Angelia Davis, Ms. Nikki Giovanni and MC Lyte. I’m blown away remembering all I’ve seen and the people I’ve met since joining the team in 2004.

But by far, the best memories I have come from the bonds built with an amazing group of coworkers, docents and volunteers who have all rallied around our common purpose. Each year has brought new faces, gifts, and laughs to our Freedom Center family. We’ve also shed a few tears sending off talented colleagues, interns, and volunteers to make their mark on the world. Saying goodbye is difficult, but each time we make sure they know they have been a valuable part of our story.

Novella wearing one of many costumes

Novella wearing one of many costumes

They say a picture is worth a thousand words. Many of my photos have been lost, but I did salvage a few that capture just small of portion of my favorite #MuseumMoments at the National Underground Railroad Freedom Center—scroll down to take a look.

I’ve had a lot of memories here in 15 years, can’t wait to have many more. Did my post remind you of any special memories at the Freedom Center (or any other museum that you’ve visited)? Recognize anyone in my photos? Let us know—we’d love to hear from you!

Novella Nimmo

Education Coordinator
National Underground Railroad Freedom Center

Getting dressed for “Our Foremothers”

Getting dressed for “Our Foremothers”

Bengals Football Team and Novella Nimmo

Bengals Football Team and Novella Nimmo

In honor of Jacqueline Wallace

In honor of Jacqueline Wallace

In honor of Jacqueline Wallace

Left to right: Linda Wesseler, Pam Dock, Julie Gore, Novella Nimmo, Verneida Britton, Keili Ferguson, Edna Keown and Jyreika Gues

Angelia Davis and Donna Thomas

Angelia Davis and Donna Thomas

Civil Rights Leader Marian Spencer

Civil Rights Leader Marian Spencer

First Lady Michelle Obama

First Lady Michelle Obama

Volunteer Appreciation Month

Volunteer Appreciation Month

Every Child Succeeds

Every Child Succeeds

The Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793

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Freedom Center Voices

The Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793

When news of COVID-19 began to sweep the country, it got me thinking about the past outbreaks in United States history. The first that came to mind was the 1793 yellow fever epidemic that gripped our then-largest American city and nation’s capital—Philadelphia, PA.

At the time, yellow fever was known as ‘American plague.’ Catching this disease was serious and caused the afflicted a lot of suffering before they ultimately died. We now know that this highly infectious virus is carried and transferred by mosquitoes, but this fact wasn’t discovered until much later in 1881. The unknown caused fear and panic to tear through the city. It had struck our shores before, but this was the worst wave of yellow fever in American history.

As the disease spread, Dr. Benjamin Rush and Dr. James Hutchinson warned Mayor Matthew Clarkson of the possibility of an epidemic. The Mayor met with other doctors, government officials and citizens to find the best course of action to fight the disease.

Free African Society. Established in 1787 under the leadership of Richard Allen and Absolom Jones, this organization fostered identity, leadership, and unity among Blacks and became the forerunner of the first African-American churches in this city. (Historical Marker at 6th and Lombard Sts. Philadelphia PA - Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission 1991)

As the death toll climbed and thousands fled the city in fear, Dr. Rush wrote a letter to a local newspaper insinuating the idea that African Americans were somehow immune to yellow fever.  The newspaper then wrote an article pleading with free African Americans to help with the sick. Absalom Jones and Richard Allen, two of Philadelphia’s most prominent African Americans at the time, met with members of the Free African Society and decided to offer assistance to the citizens of Philadelphia.

“Early in September, a solicitation appeared in the public papers, to the people of colour to come forward and assist the distressed, perishing, and neglected sick; with a kind of assurance, that people of our colour were not liable to take the infection. Upon which we and a few others met and consulted how to act on so truly alarming and melancholy occasion. After some conversation, we found a freedom to go forth, confiding in Him who can preserve in the midst of a burning fiery furnace, sensible that it was our duty to do all the good we could to our suffering fellow mortals.”

- Richard Allen and Absalom Jones

African American women nursed the sick and dying, while African American men mainly tended to transporting the sick and burying the dead. These heroic individuals, who were denied citizenship after the American Revolution and treated as inferior, risked their lives to help save the very people who oppressed them. In the end, the yellow fever outbreak claimed thousands of lives including approximately 240 African Americans.

In a time when black communities are being disproportionately affected by Covid-19 in the United States, it seems more important than ever to remember the story of these heroes who once rose to the occasion, risked themselves to work the front lines, and saved lives. That work continues today, and we are grateful.

James Harrington

Manager of Interpretive Services
National Underground Railroad Freedom Center

Remembering Healers and Herbal Remedies

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Freedom Center Voices

Remembering Healers and Herbal Remedies

This week I would like to honor healers, women that brought the tradition of herbal healing to America from Africa using plants, roots, bark and animals to make medicine. Enslavement brought a lot of healers from Africa. If they came across plants they didn't know, they learned about them from either Native Americans or by trial and error. There was always a healer around that could help ease the pain and suffering of both the enslaved and the free.

In one of my previous blog posts, I shared that Susie King Taylor was a healer who used knowledge passed down from her grandmother. In that post I only mention Sassafras as a blood purifier, but it was also used for joint pain. Below is a list of some of the herbs used by enslaved people, partly because many of them distrusted man-made medicines. Everything listed here was either boiled into tea or made into a paste to dress wounds:

  • Pennyroyal – Pain reliever, also used to relieve the pain of childbirth (Don’t know of any medicine that can do that…)
  • Snakeroot – Purified the body (Horrible taste. Completely cleaned out the internal system, so you would need to stay close to the bathroom…)
  • Rat Vein – Treating colic babies (Smelled bad. Since there were no bottles, a rag was soaked and baby watch closely so they wouldn’t choke on it)
  • Wild Cherry Bark – Fever reducer
  • Sage – Soothed a sore throat
  • Horehound – Cold treatment (Found in some cough syrups today)

That was the 1800s, but how about the 1900s? This reminds me of some of the home remedies that were given to me as a young child in Virginia:

  • Cod-liver oil – Given for colds. Mixed w/honey and a side of orange slices to cover the bad taste (it didn’t help)
  • Castor Oil – For general sickness
  • Lye soap – Shaved and mixed in warm water to use as an enema
  • Wet Tobacco – For bee stings
  • Condensed milk & stale bread – Skin infection (I was told this would bring boils instead of illness)
  • Father John – I don’t know what was in it, but it tasted worse than cod liver oil or castor oil
  • Garlic – Cold, whooping cough, foot pain, corns
  • Vinegar – Helped lower blood pressure
  • Fat back (fat from the back of a pig) – used to prevent gangrene from stepping on rusty nails and glass injuries (country living, we walked bare footed a lot…)

There were also herbs my grandmother and aunts used on us as children and we had no idea what they were. We were told “to take it or else,” so that’s what we did. Nobody wanted to find out what “or else” meant. Some common meds like Vicks Vapor Rub made a difference with fever. It was placed under my nose and rubbed on my chest and back. I was also given a little bit of it to eat, then wrapped in a hot towel to make me sweat. I did feel better the next morning.

As we laugh and ponder the different remedies that have been used for healing, I would like to thank and honor those that kept us here.  We have come a long way with medical treatment, and we thank all those today that stand on the front line, treating COVID-19, while we wait on a cure.

Now it’s your turn, let’s keep this rolling  If you can remember any home remedies not listed above, we’d love to hear from you. If none come to mind, maybe give someone older in your life a call and ask them. Let us know where they grew up. I am sure there were a lot of home remedies out there and I just scratched the surface.

Novella Nimmo

Education Coordinator
National Underground Railroad Freedom Center

Robert Smalls

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Freedom Center Voices

Robert Smalls

In the early morning hours of May 13, 1862 on Charleston, South Carolina’s Southern Warf, Robert Smalls and a small group of freedom seekers embarked on a courageous journey to freedom. Like so many enslaved people, the desire for freedom was so profound that not even the risk of death could have stopped them. Once word spread of his heroic escape, he became the most famous African American in the country. From that day on, he would spend the rest of his life fighting for inclusive freedom for all African Americans.

“My race needs no special defense, for the past history of them in this country proves them to be the equal of any people anywhere. All they need is an equal chance in the battle of life.”

- Robert Smalls on November 1, 1895

Robert Smalls (1839-1915), nps.gov

Robert Smalls (1839-1915), nps.gov

Early Life

Robert Smalls was born on April 5, 1839 in Beaufort, South Carolina. He was enslaved by John McKee and worked as a house servant until the age of 12. After that, McKee leased Robert out to work as a waiter and sailor. When Smalls was 18, he worked out an agreement with McKee to keep some of his earnings. In time, he used his savings to purchase his wife and daughter from their owner for $800. Saving money to purchase family members was not uncommon at the time. It was done to keep families together and possibly give them the chance to be emancipated.

An Opportunity

Robert was sent to work on the steamship Planter in 1861 at 22 years old. The Planter was owned by John Ferguson, who leased it out to the Confederate military. The ship was used as a supply transport and a personal dispatch for General Roswell Ripley, the commander of the 2nd Military District of South Carolina. When the Union Navy set up a blockade 10 miles outside of Charleston, it gave Robert an idea. Robert had always thought about escaping with his wife and children, but never had an opportunity until then. During his time on the Planter, he devised an extraordinary plan to not only gain his own freedom, but freedom for 15 others as well. His plan was to commandeer the Planter, pick up his family and additional freedom seekers, and pilot it out to the Union blockade.

Even though Robert was already a skilled sailor, he studied as much as he could about operating the Planter. From commands, to routes, to signals, to engineering, he knew the key to his success was deception through knowledge. He even studied the body movements of General Ripley and Captain Charles Relyea to deceive the confederate soldiers on land. He believed if he could make the ship look like it was on a normal mission, he may have a chance. Smalls devised his plan with the other enslaved crew members on the Planter.

Escape

On the night of May 12, 1862, Captain Relyea ordered Smalls and the other enslaved crew members to guard the Planter while the Confederate sailors went home to stay with their families. This was actually a violation of General Orders, No. 5. That night, Smalls and the others disguised themselves as crew members. Smalls disguised himself as Captain Relyea, even wearing his straw hat. They sailed the ship up the Cooper River to pick up Smalls’ family and the other freedom seekers. Once everyone was on board, they turned around and headed down the Cooper River toward the Union blockade. This was the most dangerous part of the escape. Smalls had to pilot the ship through a gauntlet of forts and artillery stations. Any simple mistake could have aroused the suspicion of the Confederate soldiers manning their stations. The forts and artillery stations could have easily destroyed the Planter, killing everyone on board.

Some of Smalls’ crew wanted to try and sneak past the forts, but Smalls knew that the noise from the engine and the smoke coming out of the stacks made that impossible. Smalls knew they had to maintain their composure, stay the course, and make everything seem normal. The forts (Castle Pinckney, Fort Ripley, Fort Johnson and Fort Sumter) were also checkpoints for ships moving in and out of Charleston harbor. The ships and the checkpoints would signal each other as a means of communication. One by one, Smalls signaled the checkpoints and they signaled back. Before the Confederates knew what was going on, Smalls had successfully piloted the Planter out to the Union blockade.

When the Union sailors boarded the Planter, they were dismayed with the situation: 16 African Americans aboard a Confederate supply ship at a Union blockade. When Smalls met the Union sailors, he saluted them and said, “I am delivering this war material including these cannons and I think Uncle Abraham Lincoln can put them to good use.”

When word spread throughout the North about this incredible act, Smalls became the most famous African American in the country and a hero for the cause. The Confederacy offered a $2,000 reward for his capture. Smalls had humiliated the Confederacy, and challenged their belief of African American inferiority. How could an illiterate, enslaved man commandeer a Confederate ship, pilot it past all those checkpoints, and hand it over to the Union blockade? After gaining his freedom, he served the Union as the first African American Captain of a military vessel, the Planter and the Keokuk.

An image of Robert Smalls and the Planter from Harper’s Weekly, loc.org

An image of Robert Smalls and the Planter from Harper’s Weekly, loc.org

Legacy

After the war, Smalls decided to move back to South Carolina instead of leaving the South like many other African Americans did. He opened both a general store and a school to help his newly emancipated brothers and sisters. This was a courageous yet dangerous move, because Smalls was so well-known in the Charleston region for his actions. In addition to his business ventures, he also became editor of the Beaufort Southern Standard and eventually purchased the house of his deceased former owner, John McKee. In an act of kindness, he allowed Mrs. McKee to remain in the mansion.

Robert knew the road ahead for African Americans would be long and turbulent, so he decided to run for public office. Smalls knew that this was the best opportunity to fight for inclusive freedom legislation for African Americans. He was elected to the South Carolina House of Representatives in 1868, the state Senate in 1870, and eventually the U.S House of Representatives in 1875 where he served 5 terms.

Robert Smalls’ story should be an inspiration for us all. For most of us, it’s almost impossible to comprehend the reality of his experiences. From enslaved to a U.S. Representative and so much more. To honor Robert Smalls, his great-great grandchildren Michael and Helen Boulware-Moore worked with the South Carolina State Museum to create a travelling exhibit called “The Life and Times of Congressman Robert Smalls." Director Charles Burnett is also currently working with Amazon to develop a movie based on Robert Smalls’ life, called Steal Away.

“I think he is an unsung hero. Once again, it’s getting the story of Robert Smalls out to the public. I want [young people] to remember him as a ‘yes you can’ person. When we tell the story of Robert Smalls, we want [children] to be able to really understand that they have an opportunity. When they see a child who grew up enslaved, but ended his life as a five term United States congressman. If he can do it, than they can do it.”

- Helen Boulware-Moore, great-great granddaughter of Robert Smalls, thegrio.com

James Harrington

Manager of Interpretive Services
National Underground Railroad Freedom Center

Mary Eliza Mahoney

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Freedom Center Voices

Mary Eliza Mahoney

Remembering Healers and Herbal Remedies

Since our last two blog posts featured outstanding men, I decided to feature an outstanding woman—Mary Eliza Mahoney (1845-1926). Mary Mahoney is known as the first African American to earn a nursing degree in the United States. Mary was born in Boston to previously enslaved parents who fled North Carolina seeking a life of freedom. Knowing at an early age that she wanted to become a nurse, she recognized she had a big obstacle to cross. A beautiful young women with dark skin and weighing only 90 pounds, her determination and heart outweighed the strongest of men. Bucking the traditional system, she never married (in that time, married women usually became housewives) and she devoted her life to caring for others.

At age 18, Mary found work at the New England Hospital for Women and Children, which was run by a staff of women. Mary worked at the hospital for 15 years as a cook, maid, laundress and nurse’s aide. In 1878, she was granted a new opportunity. She was finally accepted in to the hospital’s professional graduate school for nursing. It was an intensive 16-month program. Out of 42 students, only four passed. Mary was among the four.

After graduation, Mary worked as a private nurse for over 30 years. Due to the racial inequalities of the time, the private sector was the only option for an African American nurse. In 1911, Mary became the Director of the The Howard Colored Orphan Asylum for African American children in Long Island, New York, serving one year. At age 76, she became one of the first women to register to vote after the passage of the 19th amendment in 1920.

Unfortunately, 1923 brought on a new battle for Mary that she lost 3 years later. On January 4, 1926 she died of breast cancer at the age of 80. She is buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in Everett, Massachusetts. In 1936, the National Association for Colored Graduate Nurses created the Mary Mahoney Award in honor of her achievements, still given today. In 1968, Mary Mahoney Award Winner Helen S. Miller, raised enough money along with other sororities to erect a memorial at Mahoney's gravesite. The memorial is visited by many and signifies the strength and resilience of Mary’s legacy.

As we wait out this pandemic that has taken over the world, we at the National Underground Railroad Freedom Center thank all those health care professionals who continue to work the front line. Today, you are our freedom heroes.

---

Novella Nimmo

Education Coordinator
National Underground Railroad Freedom Center

Perspectives: David Walker

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Freedom Center Voices

Perspectives: David Walker

Born in Wilmington, N.C. of a free African American mother and an enslaved father, David Walker (c.1798 – 1830) was considered legally free. Slavery followed the condition of the mother, not the father. Even though he was techincally free, he still observed the horrors of enslavement. As a young child, he watched as a son was forced to whip his mother.

Walker traveled throughout the North as a young man, but eventually settled in Boston by 1825 and opened a used clothing store. He married Eliza Butler in 1826 and they had two children, Lydia and Edward. Lydia died before her second birthday, but Edward would become one of the first African Americans elected to the Massachusetts State Legislature in 1866.

Walker’s real passion, however, was for ending enslavement. He joined anti-enslavement groups (Massachusetts General Colored Association), wrote for the country’s first black newspaper (Freedom’s Journal), and became known for his eloquent speaking against enslavement. He was also associated with the Prince Hall Freemasonry.

In 1829 he wrote and published a pamphlet called Appeal, a radical call to African Americans to rise up in revolt against slave owners.  His Appeal was intended to spark a flame in abolitionists and show all Americans the hypocrisy that slavery presented in a country where “all men are created equal.”

“The man who would not fight under our Lord and Master Jesus Christ, in the glorious and heavenly cause of freedom and of God--to be delivered from the most wretched, abject and servile slavery, that ever a people was afflicted with since the foundation of the world, to the present day--ought to be kept with all of his children or family, in slavery, or in chains, to be butchered by his cruel enemies.”

Walker used his clothing store to spread the message, sewing copies of his pamphlet into the lining of sailors’ clothes. The sailors sympathetic to his cause could then distribute the pamphlets all across the South. Reaction to his Appeal was swift. Outraged slaveholders helped pass laws forbidding African Americans to learn to read and banning the spread of anti-enslavement pamphlets. The state of Georgia issued a $10,000 reward for Walker’s capture.

Even though his supporters begged him to flee to Canada, Walker refused, saying “Somebody must die in this cause. I may be doomed to the stake and the fire, or to the scaffold tree, but it is not in me to falter if I can promote the work of emancipation.”

On August 6, 1830, shortly after a third edition of his pamphlet was published and one week after his daughter died of tuberculosis, David Walker passed away.  His Appeal however, continued to inspire people to fight against enslavement. From Nat Turner to John Brown, the idea of ending enslavement through violence became a common theme.  In the end, David Walker was right. It took violence, the Civil War, and the death of over 600,000 human beings to finally bring an end to enslavement.

David Walker’s legacy continued to live on through the Black Nationalist Movement and through individuals like Martin R. Delany, Malcom X, Huey P. Newton and Angela Davis. Malcom X aggressively spoke out against racism, and gaining equality “by any means necessary.” Huey P. Newton and Angela Davis proudly marched down streets with rifles and shotguns in hand, showing the country they were not afraid to use violence to defend themselves against racist attacks. Even today, organizations like Black Lives Matter, continue to answer Walker’s call for self-resilience and self-determination. David Walker’s Appeal and its ideology will continue to resonate for generations to come.

James Harrington

Manager of Interpretive Services
National Underground Railroad Freedom Center

Keeping Our History Healthy: John S. Rock

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Freedom Center Voices

Keeping Our History Healthy: John S. Rock

For as far back as we can recall, African American professionals have distinctly served a dual purpose in American society. The social realities and legacies call for African Americans to be brilliant in their respective occupations while being an example of social uplift for the discounted and disenfranchised. John S. Rock is one of those brilliant examples and forebears who are often overlooked. As a master of several professions and an activist, Rock was an intellectual force who contributed towards the liberation and emancipation of millions.

John S. Rock (1825-1866) was born to free black parents in Salem, New Jersey.  He was educated in the public schools and became a grammar school teacher between 1844 and 1848.  He also studied medicine while working as an assistant to white doctors. After being denied admission to medical school because of his race, Rock pursued dentistry and opened a dental practice in Philadelphia. Although he was not afforded the necessary opportunities, he remained diligent in becoming a physician. Through perseverance, he was admitted to the American Medical College and graduated with a medical degree in 1852.

Dr. Rock moved to Boston where he established a successful practice that often offered free services to escaping enslaved persons. As a prolific orator, he lectured on the abolition of slavery as well as suffrage for Blacks. In 1858 he delivered a powerful speech titled, “Whenever the Colored Man is Elevated, It Will Be by His Own Exertions”. Rock’s analysis of racism and pride in his African ancestry was profound.  In fact some scholars believe his proclamation of “Black pride” became a central part of the Black Power movement a century later. This speech asserts the courage of Blacks to fight for freedom and that “Black is beautiful”.  He also protested and challenged the 1857 Dred Scott Decision in this monumental speech.

After health issues forced him to give up his medical practice in 1859, he decided to pursue a career as a lawyer.  In 1861 he became one of the first African Americans admitted to the Massachusetts Bar and was appointed Justice of the Peace for Suffolk County. Through the conflict of the Civil War, Rock remained relentless in advocating for the abolition of slavery. Additionally, he was a major recruiter for the Black volunteer regiments from Massachusetts.

In 1865, Rock became the first African American to be accorded the privilege of pleading before the Supreme Court.  Rock’s presence was approved by Salmon P. Chase, who replaced Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, author of the Dred Scott decision. Still in poor health, Rock became ill during the Washington ceremonies and never recovered.  His health continued to deteriorate until his passing in 1866.

This abolitionist, teacher, dentist, physician, and lawyer was a brilliant combination of intellectual power, professional success, and political action.  As we observe the remarkable heroism of those in the medical profession during this pandemic, let us not forget the trailblazers that proceeded them. I know many African Americans in the medical field and they are often called to be more than their occupation. Like Rock, they are needed to be examples of social uplift and ethical leadership for the discounted and disenfranchised.

Christopher Miller

Senior Director of Education & Community Engagement
National Underground Railroad Freedom Center

Keeping our History Healthy: Susie King Taylor

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Freedom Center Voices

Keeping our History Healthy: Susie King Taylor

As March and Women’s History Month comes to a close, I thought I would write about a woman that even if you have heard of her, you might not realize all that she accomplished. Especially, in a time where women had few rights and African Americans had no rights in America. The woman, Susie King Taylor, was so accomplished that she wrote her own memoirs in a time where reading and writing could mean being severely punished. This woman became a school teacher and nurse, but wait until you read about her nursing abilities. I will start at her beginning, by telling of her childhood and her grandmother who played an important part shaping the woman Susie would become.

Susie was born August 5, 1848, the oldest of nine children to Hagar Ann Reed and Raymond Baker in Liberty County Georgia. She was deemed property, as she was born on the Grest Plantation. Even though she and her family were enslaved, the Grest seemed to not follow the norm of being cruel owners. At the age of seven, Susie and one of her brothers were allowed to live with her grandmother who was a free woman in Savanah, Georgia. Now, this is where the story gets interesting. Her grandmother, Dolly Reed, was an entrepreneur in her own right. She worked for herself as a laundress, cleaning lady and every three months would travel to visit her daughter on the Grest Plantation. She didn’t come alone--she would bring bacon, flour, sugar and other products to sell on her journey. When ready to depart, she returned with chickens and eggs to sell at home. Grandma Dolly was also a healer, meaning she would go into the woods and pick plants, roots and tree bark to make medicine, and she taught this tradition to Susie.

One thing Susie’s grandmother lacked was the ability to read and write. Grandma Dolly knew how important it was to learn. So, when Susie and her brother came to live with her, she sent them to school.  This wasn’t a school like we know today. No, this school was hidden in plain sight. The school was at the home of Mrs. Woodhouse, and she taught any kid in the neighborhood that wanted to learn. The kids wrapped their books in paper so that everyone who didn’t know would think Mrs. Woodhouse was only teaching the children the proper way to work as domestic help. After Mrs. Woodhouse taught Susie everything she knew, Grandma Dolly found two other teachers for Susie, both white students who agreed to teach Susie as long as their parents didn’t find out.

April 1862 brought the Civil War, with South Carolina being the first state to secede. Once Union troops captured Fort Pulaski, enslaved African Americans began to escape to freedom.  Susie’s uncle was among the ones looking to take his family, Susie went along.  Let me just state without going into a lot of detail, her escape wasn’t pleasant. They had a lot of obstacles to cross before finally reaching St. Catherine Island, then leaving by boat to their destination, St. Simon’s Island. While aboard ship, she met Captain Whitmore. Talking with him revealed her ability to read and write, she felt she could trust him with her secret. Once they reached the Island, Captain Whitmore revealed her abilities and this led to Susie becoming a teacher.  She taught over 40 children by day and a number of adults by night that wanted to learn.

The next big change that came in Susie’s life was the construction of the first black regiment. The First South Carolina Volunteers was formed on November 7th 1862 under the leadership of white Commander Colonel Thomas Wentworth Hissinson. The reason I mention ‘volunteers’ in the name is because even though they fought and laid down their lives for freedom, none of them were paid a wage because of the color of their skin. Commander Hissinson fought for them to get paid, but his words and writing fell on deaf ears and payment for their service was never received. The regiment name was later changed to 33rd United States Colored Infantry Regiment.

The war brought another killer into the camps besides fighting. It came here by way of England over 100 years earlier. There was a way to get rid of this killer, but people became afraid of the cure. The killer was a virus called Smallpox. Even though there was a vaccination for smallpox, most states outlawed the vaccination for fear the vaccine itself would spread the virus. Because of this action, the virus was allowed to spread. The outbreak spread in the camps since almost all of the troops had never been vaccinated. Smallpox caused skin lesions that left deep scars. It also caused fever, vomiting and often death. Many, many people died from smallpox.

There was an outbreak of smallpox in Susie’s regiment, which led her to become a nurse. This is also where her “healer” abilities came in. One of the important plants that her Grandma Dolly taught her to use as medicine was sassafras. It was used to purify the blood and reduce joint inflammation. Susie wasn’t afraid of smallpox because she remembered this lesson. She brewed and drank a lot of sassafras tea on a regular basis, believing that purifying the blood would prevent her from catching this virus. She treated the men and never sickened with smallpox.

As a nurse in South Carolina, Susie also met and worked beside Clara Barton, who later became the founder of the American Red Cross. The 33rd Colored Infantry regiment is also where she met and married Sergeant Edward King. Together they served until they were no longer needed in 1866 and later had a son. After the war, she and Edward moved back to Savannah where she open up a private school. Unfortunately, Edward died soon after and public schools opened in her area. Her private school venture failed and Susie had to find work as a domestic servant.  She eventually moved to Boston in 1872, where she met and married Russell Taylor. She spent the rest of her life working at Woman’s Relief Corps, a national organization for female Civil War veterans.

Mrs. Susie King Taylor was a teacher, nurse, wife and mother who had a remarkable life. She lived in a period where women were treated as second class citizens, and African American women treated even worse. Through all the pain suffered, Susie persevered.

Just as Susie battled smallpox, today our doctors and nurses are facing another deadly virus. As we go through this crisis together, let us not forget the many women and men who stand in the face of danger, many without proper protection, to help those who are suffering today from COVID-19. As we sit at home, upset because our lives have changed, think about those now who have placed their lives in danger and let us all persevere together.

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Novella Nimmo

Education Coordinator
National Underground Railroad Freedom Center

Photo: Susie King Taylor